Facts - Evidence - Information
What factors enabled the Mongol conquest of Asia and Eastern Europe?
The Personal Leadership of Genghis Khan
- Genghis Khan survived intense hardships as a child. After the death of his father he was outcast by his clan and left to survive with his mother and brothers. This made him a tough leader.
- He was devoutly religious. Before each war he would go to a pilgrimage to Mount Burqan Qaldun to pray to Tengri. He would climb the mountain, remove his cap and throw his belt over his shoulders in a token of submission and pray. For example before the war with the Jurchens, he did the above and prayed: "O Eternal Tangri, I am armed to avenge the blood of my ancestors, upon whom the Kin inflicted an ignominious death. If you approve of what I do, vouchsafe me the aid of your strengh." (P219 Grousset). Whether Genghis really was supported by the divine or not, the fact that he believed he was made him a strong leader and confident fighter.
- The Mongol people trusted in Genghis, in part because he was twice pronounced by the shaman to be the heavenly appointed univeral khagan. (P217 Grousset).
A strong leadership means a better-spirited people, more ardent followers, and more passionate fighters.
State and Army
The new united Mongol state was very firmly structured.
- Strong discipline by the Yasaq: The grand khan imposed strict discipline upon the civilians: death penalty for murder, major theft, concerted falsehood, adultery, sodomy, malicious witchcraft, receiving of stolen goods, and also disobedience. All laws of conduct were dictated by the yasaq, a civil and administrative code. Piano Carpini noted of the Mongolian people: “The…Mongols are the most obedient people in the world in regard to their leaders…They hold them in the greatest reverence and never tell them a lie. There are no wrangling among them, no disputes, no murders. Only petty thefts occur. Should one of them lose any of his animals, the finer never keeps them, and may even return them to their owner.”(P221 Grousset). A peac
Tactics
- Evolved from centuries of hunting and raids on the fringe of civilization. Was a perfected form of the Hsiung-Nu methods. Genghis khan said: “In daylight, watch with the vigilance of an old wolf, at night with the eyes of the raven. In battle, fall upon the enemy like a falcon.” Patient stalking of herds of deer had taught the nomads to send forwards a number of silent, invisible scouts to observe the quarry or the enemy while keeping out of sight. The use of a line of beaters in hunting taught them the heading-off movement which enable them to outflank both wings of the hostile army, s one heads off a fleeing herd of wild animals on the prairie. (P224 Grousset). The Mongolian's cultural background provided them with advantage: centuries of hunting animals made them strategically artful, they would treat the enemy like they treated prey.
- Did not hesitate to use cruel tactics: rounded up populations of surrounding districts to drive against ditch and wall. Sometimes disguised them as Mongolians by giving them Mongolian flags, so that the garrison were tricked into believing they were threatened by a huge Mongol army. (P243 Rousseau). The cruelty of the Mongols not only instilled fear in their enemies but also meant that the Mongols themselves did not scruple to kill, which is a useful trait in utterly defeating the enemy.
- Highly mobile cavalry which enabled surprise and ubiquity that disconcerted their enemy. Used tricks, for example they would attack and then retreat, and if the enemy chases them they will lead them over dangerous terrain, then surround and fell them like an ox. (P224 Grousset). The light cavalry put gaps into the army with arrows. Mounted archers could bring down enemies at even 400 yards away. After the enemy has been lured forward and demoralized by the shooting, heavy cavalry came forward and made saber charges. The fighters were highly experienced in these tactics from hunting. Therefore battles, for the Mongols, were neat and organized, without the chaos that often troubled the enemies.
- Army of over 100,000 men who were always ready to go to war. Being always ready is important.
- Terror: the Mongols made use of their terrifying physique, ugliness, stench to instill terror. They used traditional ruses of hunter to madden and bewilder his prey: advanced in awe-inspiring silence and good organization, then suddenly charged, with diabolical shrieks and yells. (P225). Psychological effects are powerful.
- Unlike the sedentary civilizations which they conquered, the Mongols had military mobility and withdraw to evade attacks. When Mongols gain plunder from their raided towns, the plunder could be put o immediate and valuable use, whereas on the other hand for the settled people, the plunder value of a successful expedition against the nomads had no compensation for the expense of equipping and maintaining troops. (P15 Geographical factor).
Victory over Jurchens
- Even though the great city walls of Chin and its distance from the Mongol steppe posed a challenge, Genghis’ advisors formed tactics to face these challenges: Each warrior was given 3-5 good horses and 1-2 subservient soldiers; sheep flocks were to accompany army movements to ensure proficient food supplies. When faced with solid city walls, use one part of the army to surround, at the same time use some other parts to raid weaker villages and unprotected towns around the city for food and feed. When attacking the city, line enemy hostages up at the front to demoralize the enemy soldiers and take the chance to attack. Meanwhile, should take care to take many craftsmen and mechanics, so that they could make the equipments necessary for city invasions for the Mongols. This suggestion was raised by Borshu, leader of a 10-thousand men. (P169 Liu).
- Massacred opposing towns to terrify the enemy and cause it to lose the will to fight. (P169 Liu).
- 金王朝朝政混乱,军队腐败,军无斗志,百姓不满,使不少契丹人和汉人投奔蒙古,鼓吹南下伐金(P167 liu)。成吉思汗把握好了时机:金王朝外强中干,朝纲腐败,将士腐化已不是完颜阿骨打建国初期的强盛大金。(P167 Liu)
- Since 1208 there had been Chin malcontents, especially Khitans, in Genghis’ camp who informed him of the state of conditions the Chin was in. In 1208, four high officials of the Jurchen court escaped to the Mongols, and asked them to attack the Jurchens. (P90 Weatherford)
- The Emperor of Chin: Yung Chi (previously Wei Shao Wang) was impolitic, and too reactionary when facing the Mongols. Even though he had known Genghis’ open contempt to him when he rose to power, he unwisely chose to seize Genghis when he pays his tribute, which was not very likely given his hatred. (P172 Liu). Other rulers of the Chin also showed cowardice towards the Mongols : 完颜承裕对蒙古骑兵心存畏惧心理,不敢主动出击和实施反攻,分兵把守边境城镇,被动挨打(P173 Liu);完颜执中同样畏敌,不敢冒险(P174),不听从部将巴古失和桑臣建议。手下契丹族被派质问成吉思汗,反而投降成吉思汗,为蒙军伐金出谋划策。 (174)
- 金军的40万军有一半为步兵,用骑兵冲击步兵,势不可挡。骑兵的实际参战人数不到15万人,比蒙军多5万,可缺乏训练,马力不如蒙古马。金军的30万增援部队是临时拼凑起来的,将士之间、部队之间、步骑之间,彼此不了解,缺乏协同训练,难以协同进攻,奋勇作战。女真族将士贪生怕死,其他部族的士兵更无战死的决心,他们难以抵挡与他们各方面正相反的复仇之师(P175 Liu)
- The Jurchen Chin Empire was built upon the base of the Khitans, who shared linguistic and genetic affinities with the Mongols but were conquered by the Jurchens. When the Mongols attacked, the Khitans 拍手称快,纷纷响应,充当蒙军先导。(P179Liu)例如,石抹明安阵前投靠成吉思汗,后来成为蒙军攻金的先锋官;金国的留守管移刺捏尔一听说成吉思汗率大军南征,并兴奋地对部下说:“为国复仇的时候到了!”,并带着一百多名契丹勇士区间成吉思汗,献灭金十策,被封为霸州元帅。耶律留哥在辽东起兵反金,当成吉思汗率军至辽东,耶律留哥率众降服。汉人也因女真人官府强占民田敲诈勒索而恨之入骨。蒙军南下进攻金国,汉民起义夺回土地,起义占了今河北,山东各地使金国穷于应付。(P179 Liu)。蒙军利用了这些混乱扰乱金国的后方,使金军顾此失彼。
- 大扫荡、屠城政策:蒙军先攻掠乡村,然后驱赶村民走在阵前,围攻城镇,另守军不忍射杀父老乡亲,纷纷投降。蒙军还屠城,只要不投降的城镇男女老少压出城外集体屠杀,给敌军造成极大的恐怖(P185,191 Liu)。
- 虽然起初城墙是蒙军的一大困难,可在攻金之战中逐渐掌握了工程技术和战术,学会利用炮石,从西夏军和金军缴获了先进武器装备例如弩、火药、燃烧器材、狼牙棒等。(189、191Liu)。
Defeat of the Khwarazmian Empire
- The Empire suffered from disorders: The Muhammud Shah was in conflict with the Islamic clergy and the queen mother Turkan Khatun. (P189 invasion of Chin Empire,P117 Weatherford)
- Employed the tactics gained from fighting with the Jurchens.
- Fighting with civilizations like Transoxiana and eastern Iran were easier than wars with China- they had not seen the Mongols before and therefore felt more terror. (P242 Rousseau)
Keeping Conquered Places
- the Mongols never lost their administrative sense and the military sense of order. After defeating a state and slaying four fifths of the population they left a civilian official (darugachi) to manage the surviving one fifth. (P243 Rousseau). Slaughtering of a large percentage of populations also meant that a rebel uprising would not be very possible.